The Newest Borrowed Words and Methods of their Formation in the Russian- and Chinese-Language Internet Communication Space

The article elaborates on a comparative analysis of the methods of borrowing (phonetic, semantic, graphic) foreign words in the modern Russian and Chinese languages. The emphasis is upon the gaming methods of formation of units occurred because of borrowing of foreign language vocabulary within the last 10 years, spread in the Internet but not recorded in any dictionaries, as well as upon the peculiarities of their functioning in the Russian- and Chinese-language Internet communication space. In the research, the following techniques are used: observation, description, classification and contrastive comparison. It is established, that an important feature of the newest borrowed words used by the Russian and Chinese Internet users is that predominantly American English constitutes the source language. Similarities and differences in the Russian- and Chinese-language Internet communication are revealed.


INTRODUCTION
The studies of English, Russian and Chinese linguists in the field of lexicology, lexicography, neology and borrowing theory, notably Haugen (1950), Serjeantson (1962), Bussmann (1999), Crystal (2008), Krysin (2004Krysin ( , 2010, Semenas (2000), Marinova (2012), Lo Changpei andHu Shuangbao (2009) , Shi Youwei (2004, 2013, Zhao Yuanren (2012), Zhang Ke and Denisenko (2018) constituted the theoretical and methodological basis hereof. Taking into account the traditional understanding of the borrowing issue as well as the views of modern linguists, we consider borrowing as a process of transition of a language unit from one language to another one as well as the process of formation of a new language unit in a language influenced by another language due to one or more linguistic contacts. Thus, adhering to the broad understanding of the borrowed word term, we consider the lexical units formed due to the lexical borrowing as borrowed words.
The lexical units compiled by the article author by the continuous sampling of the borrowed words dictionaries and text messages of the Russian-language and Chineselanguage Internet forums devoted to the common topic discussion constituted the study material, notably the "iXBT Conference" (http://forum.ixbt.com) in the "Other forums" 3 / 13 part (forums for topics not to be discussed in other thematic forums) in the Russianlanguage Internet forums as well as the "Tianya (天涯 "Universe")" (http://bbs.tianya.cn) in the "Liaovan Tianya (了望天涯 "hot spot on the Tianya forums")" part (forums for the most discussed topics) in the Chinese-language Internet forums. The study included the following techniques: observation, description, classification and contrastive comparison.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The Russian language and the Chinese language borrow foreign words by phonetic, semantic and graphic methods. Both languages have various gaming methods for creating neologisms while borrowing lexical units from foreign languages. The newest borrowed words formed by the language game and applied by users during the Internet written communication have some features of the conversation vocabulary.

Phonetically borrowed Words in the Russian-Language and Chinese-Language Internet Space
A phonetically borrowed word means a lexical unit where the sound and meaning of a word in one language are established in another language due to the phonetic borrowing (Bynon, 1977;Gao Mingkai & Liu Zhengyan, 1958;Marinova, 2012;Sapir, 2006Sapir, , 2000. The mainstreaming of new information and communication technologies, rapid spread of the Internet, continuous increase in the number of network resource users resulted in the international computer terminology emergence. In case where there is a need to use some foreign language concepts, names of new realities or objects not existing in the original language environment, the Russian language often borrows lexemes (lexical items) of approximate sound and similar meaning from other languages. For example, the Russian words used in the field of information and communication technologies are phonetically borrowed from English in the vast majority of cases: монитор (English monitor), файл (English file), роутер (English router), сайт (English site), форум (English forum) (Kuznetsov, 2009: http://slovari.gramota.ru/), etc.
The Internet communication space has a tendency of increase in the number of words phonetically borrowed from the English language, semantically equivalent to the words existing in the Russian language. The borrowing method, where only the sound shell is basically borrowed and the language fails to obtain a new lexical meaning but only a new sound, constitutes a specific feature of the Internet communication language, especially among young people. Therein, the general tendency for using English borrowed words in everyday speech has obviously taken place; young people consider the use thereof as a sign of modernity. For example, мэн/мен (English man); мани (English money); сайз (English size); смайл, смайлик (English smile); лузер (English loser) (Avanesov & Ozhegov, 2007: http://wordsonline.ru/). The main function of such words is expressive one; they increasingly replace the native language everyday words or expressions from the young people's speech. Many of them eventually become well known and are used by an increasing number of Internet users regardless of their status, education, age or nationality.
The sound form of a foreign language word or the external phonetic shell thereof is reproduced in case of the phonetic borrowing method (Duanmu 2007, p. 32). This borrowing method has long been widespread both in the Russian and Chinese languages, since it accurately conveys the source word meaning. English has become the main source of phonetically borrowed words at the present stage of the Chinese language development. The Chinese language breaks the sounds of foreign words into syllables and records each syllable with a hieroglyph in case of the phonetic borrowing. As is known, the syllabic nature of the Chinese language means that each syllable has certain meanings determined by the relevant hieroglyphs in writing. Due to the semantic significance of each syllable determined by hieroglyphs, the hieroglyphs themselves are related to certain meanings assigned thereto and may not serve only as the sounds (syllables) phonetic recording means not taking the assigned own meanings thereof in the phonetically borrowed words. In most cases, the phonetically borrowed word fails to convey the semantic content of the borrowed word in the hieroglyph image thereof, the rule of syllabic division semantic significance is not effective in this case.
However, the use of phonetically borrowed words from the English language has become a particular fashion trend in the Chinese-language Internet communication in recent years caused by the stereotypes and ideals popular among young people. Such popular foreign words have their own linguistic life in the system of lexical means being actively formed in the Internet environment conditions, for example: 马克 [ma ke] (English mark); 哈皮 [ha py] (English happy) 撸瑟/卢瑟 [lu se] (English loser) (Baidu Encyclopedia, 2008: https://baike.baidu.com/). Some phonetically borrowed words have a figurative meaning with a special semantic styling in the Internet, for example, the word逼格 [bi ge] is borrowed from the English word bigger by the phonetic method (in the "bigger than bigger" iPhone advertising slogan) and is used in the meaning of the "one having a particular experience of pretending" (Baidu Encyclopedia, 2008: https://baike.baidu.com/). The use of this word evidences the Internet users' intention to satirize the people willing to buy something not corresponding to their financial status for the purpose of garnering attention.

Semantically borrowed Words in the Russian-Language and Chinese-Language Internet Space
One may appropriately call calquing (one of the borrowing methods) as a semantic borrowing and a calque itself as a semantically borrowed word (Krysin, 2004, p. 221;Ge Benyi, 2002, p. 13;Richards & Schmidt, 2010). The semantic borrowing means conveying the semantic structure or semantic content of the source language words. Therein, the idea itself and the derivation principle but not the lexical means of the implementation thereof are borrowed.
The Russian language lexical calques are generally divided into two groups, notably structural (derivational) and semantic ones in accordance with the calquing methods. One may distinguish lexical structural calques (derivational ones according to the Russian linguists -the derivational composition of a foreign word is calqued) and selectional calques (combination of words is created by translating foreign phrases) (Krysin 2004: 223), for example: проигрыватель (English player), автообновление (English autoupdate), материнская плата (English motherboard), рабочая станция (English workstation) (Kuznetsov, 2014: http://gramota.ru/). Semantic calques are formed under the influence of a foreign language due to reinterpreting the old words' semantics (Reformatsky, 1996). The Russian language allows the meaning introduction of the semantic equivalent word from another language, and the already existing word subsequently obtains some secondary (figurative) meanings (Krysin, 2004, p. 224). We found some Russian words or some words borrowed into the Russian language long ago used in the slang meaning of foreign lexical units or phrases in the forum messages. We consider these words to be semantic calques in Russian slang, in particular in the Internet communication language. The calquing of the source word slang meaning is based on the similarity thereof with the calqued word in accordance with the basic meaning. For example, the Russian word зеленые/зелень is used in the meaning of "American dollars", supposedly under the influence of the "money" slang meaning of the English word green (Online Dictionary of modern vocabulary, jargon and slang, 2014: https://argo.academic.ru/). Russian words or the words borrowed by the Russian language that sound similar to foreign ones may be used in the meaning of the corresponding prototypes. We consider such words as special lexical calques appeared due to a peculiar play on sounds. A lot of words of this group may be found in the field of computer and network technologies, notably the words borrowed from neutral vocabulary on the basis of phonetic association assume the terminological meanings of foreign terms. For example, емеля/мыло (English e-mail) -"electronic mail"; дрова (English drive); каша (English cache) (Online Dictionary of modern vocabulary, jargon and slang, 2014: https://argo.academic.ru/). Slang vocabulary is similarly created in the youth environment: the word гудовый with the meaning "good" (English good) was created through the sound adaptation; факир (literally fakir in English) as a consonant word to the English obscene word fucker is used in the meaning thereof (Online Dictionary of modern vocabulary, jargon and slang, 2014: https://argo.academic.ru/). According to some linguists (Hu, 2004, p. 35;Hu & Xu, 2003, p. 319: Miao, 2005Shi Youwei, 2013), the morphological significance of syllabic division common to the Chinese language predetermines the predominance of calquing as a method of lexical borrowing. Unlike most phonetic words, calques are always meaningful and conveniently included in the lexical system of a language. The feeling of a foreign language of the created word is eventually lost, and it becomes habitual, allegedly a word of the own language.
In case if the structure of a borrowed word is distinct and the significant components thereof may be distinguished, Chinese usually translate it in parts, whereby "structural calques" appear in the Chinese language (Krysin, 2004;Reformatsky, 1996). For example, 马力 [ma li] (English horsepower, where "马" [ma] "horse" + "力" [li] "power"; 热裤 [je ku] (English hot pants), where "热" [je] "hot" + "裤" [ku] "pants" (Modern Chinese Dictionary (7th edition), 2016: http://www.cidianwang.com/). A significant number of calques appear in the Chinese language denoting foreign words irrespective of the structure thereof, this group of calques may be determined as "etymological calques" (Potebnya 1889), since they "etymologize" (Potebnya 1889) translatable foreign words as well as descriptively convey their meanings. For example, the word论坛 [lun' tan'] (English forum) is formed through combining the components "论 " [lun'] "discussion" and "坛" [tan'] "platform, tribune", where the word 论坛 is literally It is worth mentioning that such words sounding similar to foreign words and used in the meaning of the same foreign words appear due to the "purposeful" sound association among the Chinese people for the purpose of providing the words with a new, modern and expressive sensation. Thus, the word粉丝 [fen' sy] is not derived from the English word fans, it may be referred to the type of the words "consonant with foreign words" by the meaning of "fan(s)" thereof (Ma Zhonghong and Yang Changzheng 2016: 217). The creation of consonant words based on the word creation expressive needs constitutes a verbal play on sounds, whereby the most of the formed lexical units perform conative and emotive functions.

Graphically borrowed Words in the Russian-Language and Chinese-Language Internet Space
According to Russian linguists, a graphical borrowing means the reproduction of a borrowed word in the graphics of the donor language [Berkov, 2003, p. 4;Marinova, 2012, p. 96). Thus, a graphically borrowed word in the Russian language constitutes a lexical unit with the original graphics of another language.
Nowadays, it is typical to the Russian-language Internet to have national languages used with a large share of the English language components. The Internet communication in determining the events dynamics requires the means of nominating the newest concepts and realities. In case of the lack of nominative means in the original lexical reserves, foreign words perform the nominative functions becoming the graphically borrowed words. Many new graphically borrowed words may be found in the speeches of forum participants alongside with the phonetically borrowed words from the same foreign language source word. For example, trolling/троллинг; lamer/ламер. According to E.V. Marinova, "it is typical for a foreign neologism to simultaneously exist in different graphic options, notably in the original (Latin) and the assumed (Cyrillic) ones" (Marinova, 2012, p. 100), the linguist considers the graphically borrowed word as "the primary form of lexical borrowing as well as the initial stage of mastering a foreign language neologism providing the transition thereof from the state of an inclusion to functioning in the system of the recipient language as a separate unit" (ibid.: 100).
There is another type of words in the modern Russian text with the graphically borrowed words or abbreviations as (mainly the first) component thereof, for example (Krysin, 2010, p. 575). Some linguists consider them as complex words, others -as phrases consisting of an analytical adjective and a definable noun (Krysin, 2010, p. 577). Krysin argues that "modern Russian word formation prefers the creation of complex words of this kind, and one may consider the influence of the English language word-formation system therein, where such word-formation model is extremely common due to the universal nature thereof in forming the words of different parts of speech" (Krysin, 2010, p. 576).

Аppмаркет (English Appmarket); chatланин (English Chat LANin); SIM-карта (English SIM card); SMS-сообщение (English SMS message); PIN-код (English PIN code); TV-шоу (English TV show); PR-менеджер (English PR manager)
The use of graphically borrowed words is influenced by the subjective sociopsychological factor of the discursive activity, notably the credibility of using foreign units in the native language (Marinova, 2012, p. 98). Such words like love, crazy, cool, good, new, happy (Forum "iXBT", 09.07.2001: http://forum.ixbt.com/topic.cgi?id=35:728) claim to be the usual foreign language inclusions while considering the communicative speech aspect. They may be qualified as communicatively labeled ones, since the use thereof is always correlated with a specific communicative situation and determined by the intentions of a writer.
We found some special graphically borrowed abbreviations by the first letters of the English phrases in the messages of the (Russian-language and Chinese-language) forums participants: IMHO (English In My Humble Opinion); BBS (English be back soon); pls/plz (English please); NP (English no problem) (Online Dictionary of Internet terms, Internet slang and jargon, 2018: http://internetrabota.net/), etc. These graphically borrowed abbreviations are well established among the Internet communicators; being a special speech formation, they allow native speakers to provide immediate responses to the conditions of communication.
Graphically borrowed lexical units may serve as means of forming new words created by the contamination thereof with the Russian language lexemes through a structural association. Hybrid graphic neologisms are formed within the language word creation and the play with graphics, while two source words and the meanings thereof are layered on the same material segment of language signs. For example, clubиться is formed due to the contamination of a graphical borrowed word club and the Russian word клубиться ("wreathe"); VIPендриваться = VIP ("very important person") + выпендриваться ("show off") (Prokutin, 2009: 124). The hybrid graphic neologisms differing not only by the arbitrary nature of intra-word boundaries but also by the semantic volume increase reflect the peculiarities of a speech situation.
The Chinese language increasingly borrows "alphabetic words" (in relation to languages with the ideographic writing system) "fully written in letters of foreign (mainly Latin) alphabets or with the inclusion thereof" in recent times (Liu Yongquan, 2002, p. 85). We consider them as alphabetic words due to the graphic borrowing by the Chinese language.
Thus far, there is a wide variety of alphabetically borrowed words in the Chinese language. Based on the performed analysis of the Chinese-language Internet and taking into account the data of the Chinese linguist Liu Yongquan, the author of Dictionary of Letter Words (2001), we would like to note the main types of graphically borrowed alphabetic words in the Chinese language: 1) Borrowed abbreviations formed from the initial letters of all or some words phrases, notably PK (player killing); PhD (Philosophy Doctor). 2) Borrowed abbreviations formed from morphemes of a word or phrase, notably CP (couple); BGM (Background Music). 3) Borrowed full alphabetic words or expressions, notably hello; bye; pick; diss. 4) Borrowed abbreviations formed from the first letters of the first word of a phrase and the full second word of a phrase, notably e-mail (electronic mail); B-box (beat box).
Graphically borrowed alphabetic units are involved in the word-formation processes in the Chinese language. Combinations of alphabetic formations (including signs of the pinyin Chinese phonetic transcription based on the Latin alphabet) with the Chinese language hieroglyphs are generally called as mestizo words in the Chinese linguistics (混 血儿 (Liu Yongquan, 2002, p. 86)). We consider mestizo words in the Chinese language in the framework hereof as the words consisting of graphically borrowed alphabetic units and Chinese language components written in hieroglyphs.
The creation of mestizo words is implemented through the basic word-formation method of the Chinese language, notably stem-composition being predominant in the system of the Chinese language word formation. Complex mestizo words are formed combining foreign alphabetic and Chinese language hieroglyph components in the stemcomposition process through the word-formation models established in the Chinese language.
An attribute model is one of the most effective word-formation models in the Chinese language, according to which most of mestizo words are formed, where the first part of a complex word explains the second one. Therein, the stem-composition involves the alphabetical units borrowed both in the full spelling of the source words as well as in the abbreviated form thereof. For example, C位("central focus point, center of the whole group where someone is situated while taking group photos") = C (abbreviation from the English word center) + 位 ("place"); man力 (great strength, man power) = the English word man + 力 ("power") (Baidu Encyclopedia, 2008: https://baike.baidu.com/).
A similar method of stem-composition is used in the modern Russian language, in particular, in the above-mentioned complex words such as Аppмаркет (Appmarket), TVшоу (TV show), etc., where the first part constitutes a graphically borrowed component, and the second one constitutes a word written in Cyrillic with two parts combined as definition and definiendum, the graphically borrowed alphabetic component has a free location in the Chinese language mestizo words, for example, 大house ("big house": 大 "big" + English house), 小case ("petty matter, a mere nothing": 小 "small" + English case) (Baidu Encyclopedia, 2008: https://baike.baidu.com/), where the alphabetic component is located in the second part and constitutes a definiendum.
The performed analysis proves that apart from the attributive words, the Chinese language mestizo words may be formed from other types of word-formation structures common to the Chinese language but not existing in the Russian language word-formation system. The Chinese language words created by the stem-composition method may be divided into five main types: attributive, verbal-objective, verbal-effective, subjectpredicative and copulative ones depending on the type of relationship between the components thereof (Lu Zhiwei, 1965;Ren Xueliang, 1981).
In accordance with the verbal-objective communication structure between the parts of a word, the first component stands for an action and the second one stands for an object. We would like to provide some examples of the mestizo words formed in accordance with the objective model in the Chinese language: 立 flag (literally meaning "put a flag") is used in the metaphorical meaning, notably "set a goal") =立 ("put") + flag; P图 ("handle graphic images") = P (abbreviation for the English word Photoshop) +图 ("photo, image"), where the first part P is created through conversion, while P (photoshop) is converted into the category of verbs from nouns by definition and obtains the meaning of "using the photoshop service" (Baidu Encyclopedia, 2008: https://baike.baidu.com/).
The first part of verbal-effective words stands for an action and the second one stands for an effect. Mestizo words may be formed in accordance with the effective model, for example, hold住 ("withstand, endure") = English hold + 住 (verbal effective suffix with the meaning of "tightly, firmly" emphasizing the conversion of an action into a steady state); get到 ("understand, get an idea") = English get + 到 ("forming the verb effective form specifying the maximum effect of an action after the verbal stem") (Baidu Encyclopedia, 2008: https://baike.baidu.com/).
The subject-predicative words are formed due to the lexicalization of the sentences formed in accordance with the "subject-predicate" scheme. Two parts of this type mestizo words are in a predicative relation and evidence the object constant or variable features. The copulative type of stem-composition sometimes called as the composing model is characterized by the equality of the semantic relations of the word components. Graphically borrowed alphabetic units are also involved in the formation of mestizo words with copulative connection of the components. Let us provide an example: the word Q萌 (cute), where Q, an English letter consonant with the word cute, is used in the Chinese language in the meaning of "cute", and萌 means "sweet, nice" (Baidu Encyclopedia, 2008: https://baike.baidu.com/). New specific mestizo words appeared due to the hybridization of graphically borrowed alphabetical words and Chinese four-syllable idioms based on sound similarity of an alphabetic word with some components (or one component) of the Chinese idiom are especially popular in the Chinese-language Internet in recent times. For example, 无fuck 说 is formed by hybridization of the English obscene word fuck and the Chinese idiom无 话可说 ("there are no words for that, nothing to say"), therewith the components话 [hua], 可 [ke] in the Chinese language southern dialect are consonant to the English word fuck.
The layering of the two source words meanings in the mestizo word无fuck说 provides a stronger emotive aspect: the word fuck is characterized by an emphatic expressive connotation of roughness performing the function of a phonetic pun and having a humorous effect: the word as a whole has a double meaning -the word is phonetically understood as the original Chinese idiom无话可说 in the meaning of "nothing to say", but it literally means "there are no words for that, even the obscene ones" in accordance with the graphical form thereof. This word creation method is similar to the contamination considered above used for creating hybrid graphic neologisms in the modern Russian language by the Latin and Cyrillic means.

CONCLUSION
As we can see both the Russian and Chinese languages borrow foreign words in accordance with the phonetic, semantic and graphic methods. An important feature of the newest borrowed words used by the Russian and Chinese Internet users is that predominantly American English constitutes the source language.
Most of the borrowed Russian words having new language semantics are phonetically borrowed. They are borrowed in the sound form and in the meaning similar to the prototype one. In distinction from the Russian language, the Chinese language most often borrows new terms by the method of calquing due to the semantic significance of each hieroglyph syllable thereof.
There is a tendency of increase in the number of phonetically borrowed words having semantic equivalents in the common language both in the Russian-language and in the Chinese-language Internet communication space. They perform the expressive function preserving the effect of novelty and fashion by their form. Some specific phonetically borrowed words are popular in the Chinese Internet for providing the enhanced level of expression created by choosing the hieroglyphs consonant with the source words in such a way that this phrase assumes a comic connotation.
The adoption of a new meaning by the Russian and Chinese language words may be based on the sound similarity of the calqued word and the foreign-language prototype thereof. We refer such words to a special type of the lexical calques appeared due to the play on sounds based on the phonetic association. Different English words and phrases become a part of the Russian and Chinese texts and become graphically borrowed units while preserving their original Latin graphics. Some graphically borrowed lexical units participate in the stem-composition in the Russian and Chinese languages. As a result, the first part of the Russian language complex word constitutes a graphically borrowed component, and the second one constitutes a word written in Cyrillic with two parts combined as definition and definiendum. This type of words is apparently formed under the influence of a similar word-formation model in the English language. And the Chinese language mestizo words' graphically borrowed components and the Chinese language components written in hieroglyphs may be implemented in accordance with a free location in five types of relations, notably the attributive, verbal-objective, verbal-effective, subject-predicative and copulative ones. These word-formation structure types are common to the Chinese language system. Graphically borrowed lexical units may serve as means for creating lexical neologisms in the Russian and Chinese languages distributed in the Internet for the emotive and evocative expression of users as well as their creative self-expression. The Russian language hybrid graphical neologisms are formed by contaminating the graphically borrowed units and Russian language lexemes through a structural association, and the Chinese language ones are formed by hybridization of the graphically borrowed alphabetic words and Chinese four-syllable idioms based on the sound similarity of an alphabetic word with some components (or one component) of the Chinese idiom.
Thus, the contrastive-comparative analysis of different borrowing (phonetic, semantic, graphic) methods of foreign words in the Russian and Chinese languages proves that the newest borrowed words applied by the Internet communication users have the features of the conversation vocabulary.